The Ottoman Legacy

Though located primarily in Asia (just three per cent of its territory in Europe), Turkey looks both East and West, and the nation itself is a proud member of the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Western European Union.

The Turkish Air Force is also very much a European air arm – the second largest air force in NATO (after the USA, with 1,049 aircraft on charge in April 2011), and a regular and valued participant in NATO exercises and operations.

Today’s Türk Hava Kuvvetleri (THK – Turkish Air Force) can trace its roots back to 1911, when it was formed as the Ottoman Air Force. This makes it one of the world’s oldest air arms.

Turkey was neutral for most of the Second World War, finally joining the allied side in February 1945, though encircled by the Axis powers from 1941.

The Turkish Air Force was already the largest in the Balkans and Middle East and the Government embarked on an ambitious programme of modernisation and re-equipment of its forces, and especially of its air force. This helped deter attack by Germany, Italy and Bulgaria.

The air force became independent from Army Command on January 31 1944.

Turkey acquired Morane Saulnier MS-406 fighters from France and turned to the UK for the supply of Fairey Battles, Avro Ansons, Bristol Blenheims and Beauforts, Westland Lysanders and Hawker Hurricanes, and, later Bristol Beaufighters, Supermarine Spitfires and de Havilland Mosquitos.

Increasingly, Turkey turned to the USA for aircraft, receiving Curtiss CW-22R/B Falcons, P-40 Tomahawks and Kittyhawks, Consolidated B-24D Liberators, Douglas B-26B/C Invaders and C-47A/B Dakotas, Martin Baltimores and Republic P-47D Thunderbolts.

Unusually, Turkey even received 72 examples of the Focke Wulf FW-190-A3, in return for supplies of iron ore and chromium.

After the war, Turkey fought on the UN side in Korea, and joined NATO in 1952. A close and vital US ally, Turkey thereafter organised and equipped its air force along US lines.

For many years Turkey carefully managed to modernise its air force by buying relatively small numbers of the latest aircraft, while simultaneously maintaining force structure by taking delivery of larger numbers of previous generation fighters retired by other NATO nations. Thus Turkey obtained 54 new-build F-104G/CF-104G/TF-104G Starfighters from 1963, but augmented these with surplus F-100 Super Sabres, and later received 275 more second-hand Starfighters from Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands.

Despite long-standing tension with fellow NATO member Greece, over the Aegean, and Cyprus (which has frequently descended into military skirmishing and, indeed, to the full-scale invasion of Northern Cyprus in 1974), Turkey has continued to play a vital part in the Alliance. It has participated in NATO operations in the Balkans and in the Baltic states and, more recently, in Afghanistan. The nation has also provided a vital springboard and base for Allied operations in and over Iraq.

But Turkey has ‘gone its own way’, too, flying missions against Kurdish PKK positions in Northern Iraq.

The Turkish Air Force has remained one of the most important in NATO – as well as one of the largest – and, with the air forces of Germany, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands, is one of five NATO air arms entrusted with the delivery of US B61 free-fall nuclear weapons.

An estimated 90 B61 bombs are held under so-called ‘dual key’ arrangements and stored at Incirlik Air Base. Fifty of these are reportedly assigned for delivery by USAF aircraft with 40 for delivery by the Turkish Air Force.

In fact, because Turkish defence expenditure has remained at close to Cold War levels while other nations have rapidly reduced their spending, the relative importance of the Turkish Air Force within NATO has increased in relative terms.

The closeness and importance of the Turkish relationship with the US and NATO has meant that the Turkish Air Force has continued to receive modern equipment, principally from the USA, but also cascaded from other NATO nations. This has allowed the retirement of older aircraft types, though Turkey has frequently been among the last operators of particular fighters.

All THK’s century series fighters are now long gone, though the air arm does still operate about 48 ex- RNLAF, RNorAF, USAF and RoCAF F-5B, NF-5A, F-5B and NF-5B Freedom Fighters (primarily in the lead-in fighter training role), as well as six squadrons of F-4 Phantoms.

But the fighter force today is built up around a nucleus of 12 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons, of 270 delivered – 262 of these built by local industry in the shape of Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). Some 217 of these (38 of 43 Block 30s originally delivered, 104 of 117 Block 40s, and 76 of the 80 Block 50s upgraded under Peace Onyx II and III) are being upgraded to a common standard under the Common Configuration Implementation Program (CCIP), bringing them to the same standard as the latest 30 F-16s.

Turkish F-16s were the first outside the USAF to receive LANTIRN (AN/AAQ-13 navigation and AN/AAQ-14 targeting) pods (from February 1994) and the aircraft have AGM-65A/B Maverick TV-guided missiles, AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missiles and AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles. Post upgrade, they will add compatibility with AGM-84H (SLAM-ER), AGM-154A/B, AIM-9X Sidewinder and CBU-103/105 cluster bombs.

The aircraft are compatible with European IRIS-T and Israeli Python 5 and Derby air-to-air missiles, as well as the Norwegian Penguin anti-ship missiles and the Israeli Rafael Popeye air-to-surface missile.

Turkey has also or is upgrading many of its older aircraft types. The T-38 advanced trainers are being upgraded by TAI under the so-called ‘Ari’ upgrade.

On June 21 2007, TAI was awarded a contract to upgrade five aircraft at Akinci and to support the upgrade of the remaining 50 aircraft at THK’s first air supply and maintenance centre at Eskişehir. The T-38 upgrade sees 13 new systems integrated, including a locally-developed central control computer with embedded operational flight program (OFP) and no-drop bomb scoring system (NDBS).

The other systems include a new head-up display (HUD), hands on throttle and stick   (HOTAS) controls, multi-function colour displays (MFCD), and a digital video data recorder/data transfer system (DVDR/DTS). The aircraft emerge in a smart new grey colour scheme with glossy black top surfaces. 

THK has also commissioned a $75 million upgrade for 48 of its 87 Northrop F-5/F-5Bs, with a consortium of IAI/Elbit and Singapore Technologies Aerospace designing the upgrade. The modernisation is being undertaken in-country, with IAI modifying the first four aircraft and the rest being completed at Eskişehir.

The F-5/2000 modernisation programme aims to upgrade 48 aircraft, comprising 20 F-5As, 14 NF-5As, eight F-5Bs, and six NF-5Bs, to serve as lead-in trainers for the F-16 force. The upgrade covers two areas – with a structural upgrade as well as an avionics modernisation. The first upgraded F-5 made its first flight on April 17, 2001.

Turkey is also undertaking a $630 million upgrade of 54 of the 197 or so McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantoms delivered between 1973 and 1994, following the award of a contract to IAI in August 1995.

The F-4E 2020 Terminators are receiving a structural upgrade and an improved avionics system with 26 worked on by IAI at Lahav in Israel and the remaining 28 undergoing the essentially similar Turkish aircraft modernisation phase (TAMP) upgrade at Eskisehir. The first of the Israeli-upgraded Phantoms was redelivered on July 3, 2002.

The Turkish Air Force Phantom fighter bombers were augmented by about 40 RF-E reconnaissance variants, about 26 of which remained in service by 2009, – 18 of them modernised to RF-4ETM ‘Isik’ standards in 2010.

The upgraded aircraft have a new GPS/INS navigation system including modern radios, a new flight control system, a modernised defensive EW suite (with RWR and chaff/flare dispensers) as well as structural upgrades. After the completion of the Isik modernisation programme, all the RF-4Es will be concentrated within 113 filo (squadron), and 173 filo will disband. The RF-4ETM will carry a variety of long-range oblique photography ( LOROP) and search and rescue (SARS) pods.

In the longer term, Turkey joined the system development and demonstration phase of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Joint Strike Fighter programme on July 11 2002, becoming a level 3 partner at a cost of $175 million.

Turkey has a requirement for about 150 F-35s to replace Phantoms and F-16Cs from 2013. A letter of intent (LOI) was signed between TAI and Northrop Grumman ISS (NGISS) International on February 6 2007, under which TAI will become the second source for the F-35 centre fuselage. Though the number of centre fuselages to be produced by TAI will be determined according to the number of F-35s procured by Turkey, TAI was selected on the basis of best value and industrial capability.

This industrial capability has been honed through a succession of production and upgrade programmes for the Turkish Air Force, which go far beyond the various fighter modernisation programmes already described and which, in some cases, pre-date the massive industrial effort to produce the F-16 locally.

Perhaps unsurprisingly, TAI’s first licence manufacturing programmes were relatively modest, exemplified by the sub-contract with Agusta under which TAI produced 34 SF-260D primary trainers for the Turkish Air Force between 1991-1993.

Interestingly, and despite the more complex and more ‘difficult’ F-16, 737 AEW&C, F-35 production and upgrade programmes which now occupy TAI, the company retains its core, basic competencies and, following the KT-1 Basic Trainer Aircraft Procurement Agreement in 2007, TAI has manufactured, assembled, flight tested and delivered 40 KT-1 Basic Trainer Aircraft, which are now replacing the THK’s ageing T-37 trainers with the flying school at Izmir.

THK’s transport fleet today owes just as much to local industry, with older types having been extensively modernised and upgraded and with TAI manufacturing later types under licence.

The ageing Lockheed C-130B and C-130E Hercules and C-160D Transall each equip single squadrons, and are augmented by four main squadrons of CN235M-100s.

Fifty CN235 light transport aircraft were produced by TAI and delivered to the Turkish Air Force between 1991-1998 and nine more for the coast guard and navy followed from June 1999. TAI’s work share in the CN235 airframe amounted to 92 per cent in the first programme and 95 per cent on the last nine aircraft.

Under the C-130 avionics modernisation (Erciyes) programme, TAI is upgrading seven C-130Es and six C-130Bs with a new night vision goggles- (NVG-) compatible glass cockpit, global air traffic management (GATM), reduced vertical separation minima- (RVSM-) ready avionics, a new mission computer and a new mission planning system.

The Turkish Air Force expects to receive ten Airbus A400Ms (though the original requirement was for 20), and TAI will take responsibility for the design and production of the forward centre fuselage, the rear fuselage upper shell, parachute doors, emergency exit doors, the tail cone, lighting and water/waste systems and the aileron and spoiler.

While the Turkish Air Force was once a primarily tactical, ‘teeth’ air arm, the force has expanded and developed new capabilities during the latest ‘rounds’ of modernisation. Thus, today’s THK includes air-to-air refuelling tankers, AEW aircraft and dedicated SAR helicopters as well as fighters, fighter-bombers and various transports. It is also about to start operating ISTAR UAVs.

The Turkish Air Force brought its first KC-135R tanker into service in October 1997, though Turkey had already been leasing two KC-135s prior to the purchase of seven surplus KC-135Rs, which today equip a single filo at Incirlik.

The Turkish KC-135Rs have received the Pacer compass, radar and global positioning system (CRAG) upgrade, gaining a number of new (mostly Rockwell Collins) avionics systems. These include an FMS-800 integrated flight management system with embedded traffic alert and collision avoidance (TCAS) and an enhanced ground proximity warning (EGPWS), new Collins WXR-700X forward-looking predictive wind shear weather radar and FDS-255 flat-panel LCD multi-function flight displays.

The Turkish Air Force signed a contract for the supply of four Boeing 737-700 airborne early warning & control (EWAC) aircraft (with options on two more) on June 4 2002 under the Peace Eagle programme. The first was modified and tested by Boeing at Seattle but the remainder are being modified and tested by TAI at Ankara. The first Turkish-converted aircraft was completed on June 4 2008.

The aircraft use an advanced Northrop Grumman multi-role electronically scanned array (MESA) radar with integrated identification friend or foe (IFF) capabilities and have a Turkish-built electronic support measures (ESM) system. Service entry is expected during 2011 and major maintenance is expected to be undertaken by Turkish Airlines.

Under the Phoenix II programme, beginning in 1997, the EuroTAI consortium was formed (by Eurocopter and TAI) to co-produce 30 AS 532 Cougars for the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF). The aircraft were manufactured between 1997-2003 with the first two helicopters being built by Eurocopter in France, but with the remaining 28 almost entirely manufactured by TAI, except for the engine, gear box and a few other critical components, making this the first rotary wing aircraft production programme by TAI.

The aircraft comprised six AS-532 utility helicopters and four AS-532 SAR helicopters for the Turkish Land Forces, and 14 AS-532 SAR helicopters and six AS-532 CSAR helicopters for the Turkish Air Force.

Since the Cougar programme, TAI has completed a ‘digital cockpit modification’ of 20 S-70A-28 helicopters for the Turkish Land Forces, re-delivering the last aircraft in February 2002. The company has also carried out the ambitious YARASA upgrade of four S70 Black Hawk Helicopters for the Special Forces Command.

THK consists of four Air Force Commands (Hava Kuvvet Komutanligi). Two of these are primarily geographic, and two are functionally based.

The first Air Force Command (1nci HKK) is headquartered at Eskisehir and controls five major air bases or Ana Jet Üs (AJÜ), in the western part of Turkey.

The second Air Force Command (2nci HKK) is headquartered at Diyarbakir and controls four major air bases in eastern Turkey.

Air Training Command (Hava Egitim Komutanligi) is headquartered at Izmir and consists of three major bases.

Air Logistics Command (Hava Lojistik Komutanligi) controls three Air Force maintenance centres (Hava Ikmal Bakim Merkezi Komutanligi).

Military aircraft are also operated by the Turkish Army, the Turkish Navy, the Turkish Coast Guard and the Ministry of the Interior.